Jane Austen remains one of the most celebrated novelists in English literature. However, during her lifetime, she struggled to gain financial success from her writing, largely due to the publishing practices of the early 19th century and the bias against women professionals.
At the turn of the 19th Century, female writers in both England and the United States faced considerable resistance in their efforts to publish. Although the period was marked by social and political changes, women remained largely excluded from public intellectual life. The idea of women as serious authors challenged the prevailing belief that their primary role was within the domestic sphere. Despite these obstacles, many women managed to publish influential works that reshaped literary traditions and cultural norms. English authors such as Mary Wollstonecraft, Jane Austen, and Maria Edgeworth, and American writers like Susanna Rowson, Hannah Webster Foster, and Judith Sargent Murray, defied societal expectations and made significant contributions to literature. However, they often had to navigate restrictive publishing practices, societal prejudices, and economic barriers.
One of the most notable challenges faced by female writers was the belief that intellectual pursuits were unfeminine and inappropriate. Writing for publication was seen as a public act, and women who engaged in it risked damaging their “reputations“. Mary Wollstonecraft, one of the most radical female writers of the period, faced severe criticism for her work A Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1792), which argued for women’s education and intellectual equality. She was ostracized after her death and held up as an example of a women suffering from mental disorders as a result of her education.
Jane Austen, by contrast, navigated these restrictions by being more cautious. She published her novels anonymously, attributed only to “A Lady.” Her works subtly critiqued gender norms but remained within the boundaries of acceptability of the time. Austen’s choice to focus on domestic themes, morality, and marriage allowed her to avoid the harsh criticism faced by more overtly political female writers.
Austen’s relationship with her London publishers reveals a disturbing example of exploitation, particularly when comparing the financial arrangements of her first published novel, Sense and Sensibility (1811), and her second, Pride and Prejudice (1813).
These books were published under significantly different contractual terms, reflecting not only Austen’s growing literary reputation but also the limited financial power of female authors at the time. Austen was initially undervalued by her publishers. While Pride and Prejudice ultimately yielded greater financial rewards than Sense and Sensibility, Austen remained constrained by a publishing industry that prioritized publisher profits over supporting authors, a problem that still exists today.
During Austen’s lifetime, the British publishing industry operated under a model that gave publishers significant control over book sales and profits. Authors had limited negotiating power and often had to choose between three main publishing arrangements:
- Copyright Sale – The author sold the copyright of their book to a publisher for a fixed sum, relinquishing all future profits and royalties. This also relieved the author of the costs to publish, but also gave the publisher all decision making rights to how (or if) the book got printed.
- Profit-Sharing or Royalty Model – The author received a percentage of the profits from sales, though this was less common. The author did not have to pay for any of the upfront costs of publications, however the publisher also got to recover all the costs of printing, editing, and distribution before paying the author any royalty.
- Publishing on Commission (or Self-Financing) – The author bore the financial risk of publication, paying for printing costs upfront while retaining a share of the profits.
Female authors faced additional barriers to financial success. The publishing industry in England was male-dominated, and women struggled to secure favourable publishing deals. Since many published anonymously or under pseudonyms, they had little public influence over sales. Furthermore, publishers were reluctant to offer lucrative terms to women, assuming their works were of limited commercial value as many university educated men would not read them. Austen, like many of her contemporaries, struggled to receive fair compensation during her lifetime despite the enduring popularity of her novels. Many female authors had to finance their own publications or rely on male patrons.
Sense and Sensibility: The Commission Model
Austen’s first published novel, Sense and Sensibility, was released in 1811 by Thomas Egerton, primarily a military publisher based in London. Egerton was not a major literary publisher, and his decision to take on Sense and Sensibility likely reflected his attempt to diversify into new genres rather than a firm belief in Austen’s commercial potential. For Sense and Sensibility, Austen chose the commission model, meaning she financed the publication herself. She paid Egerton for the costs of printing and advertising, while he distributed and sold the book.
Under this arrangement, Austen assumed all the financial risk and if the book failed, she would lose her investment. However, she also retained a greater share of the profits compared to an outright sale. The first edition of Sense and Sensibility was printed in a run of 750 copies, priced at 15 shillings (about 75 pence) per volume. Egerton talked her into using a heavy weight paper and woven backing that was more expensive than other types of book binding.
The novel sold well, earning Austen a profit of approximately £140 (approximately £9,500 or $12,750 today) after covering expenses.
Encouraged by this modest success, Austen decided to pursue publication of her next novel under different terms. Despite earning more than she might have under an outright sale, Austen’s financial gain was still limited by the structure of the commission model. She had no guarantee of profit, and the need to cover upfront costs meant she could not afford to publish as frequently as she might have wished. The first book’s ultimate profits was less than the upfront cost to print the books. The commission model also requires Austen to wait until after the books have sold to receive compensation.
Pride and Prejudice: The Outright Sale
By the time Austen completed Pride and Prejudice, she had greater confidence and some experience in the publishing game. Austen returned to Egerton, and asked for a sale model. She eventually sold to Egerton for a flat fee of £110 (approximately £6,500 or $8,700 today), meaning Austen relinquished all rights and future profits.
Egerton published Pride and Prejudice in three volumes in early 1813, priced at 18 shillings (about 90 pence). He used less expensive paper and bindings for the first run. The novel was an instant success, selling out quickly and requiring a second edition later that year and a third edition about 4 years later. Egerton reaped the financial benefits of this popularity, while Austen received no additional payment beyond the initial fixed fee. Had she chosen the commission model again, she could have earned significantly more, nearly three times as much.
While Egerton took on some financial risk, with Pride and Prejudice he controlled the production, marketing and distribution for a recently popular author. He stood to make a substantial profit with little future obligation to the author. He also owned the worldwide copyright and was able to produce foreign language translations in French, German, Danish, and Swedish within a couple of years of the first run. The American edition was released in 1832.
Austen’s decision to accept a flat fee was likely influenced by her need for immediate income. Nevertheless, the popularity of Pride and Prejudice highlighted the unfairness of the outright sale model.
Later Publishing Experiences
Following Pride and Prejudice, Austen learned from her financial missteps and returned to the commission model for Mansfield Park (1814). This time, she negotiated a more favourable deal, earning an estimated £310(approximately £21,000 or $28,000 today) which is significantly more than for either of her first two novels, but also substantially less than the estimated £2,100 earned by Maria Edgeworth for her forth book, Patronage (1814), which is now only read by people trying to earn their doctorates in English literature.
The final novel published during Austen’s life was Emma (1816), published by John Murray, a prominent London publisher who also worked with authors such as Sir Walter Scott, Lord Byron, and Maria Rundell. He offered Austen a form of profit-sharing, ensuring she received some ongoing revenue during her lifetime.
And we haven’t even talked about her first novel, which became her last. Austen originally sold the manuscript, titled Susan, which would become Northanger Abbey to Crosby & Co. in 1803 for £10. The publisher never decided to print a single copy, even AFTER the success of Pride and Prejudice. Eventually, Crosby sold the copyright back to Austen’s brother Henry for the same £10 and Austen revised it into the book we know and love today. It was however published posthumously along with Persuasion after Austen’s untimely death in 1817. So, she never received any compensation for either Northanger Abbey or Persuasion during her life.
Despite her growing success, Austen never achieved substantial financial independence from her writing. Her experiences highlight the broader challenges faced by authors in securing fair compensation, particularly within a male-dominated industry that often undervalued women’s literary contributions. Austen’s experiences with Sense and Sensibility and Pride and Prejudice illustrate the exploitative nature of early 19th-century publishing. Her decision to publish Sense and Sensibility on commission allowed her to retain a share of the profits but came with financial risks and little control over the process. In contrast, selling Pride and Prejudice outright provided immediate financial payout, but denied her future earnings from one of her most successful works. While her works continue to generate immense revenue today, she received only a miniscule fraction of their worth during her lifetime.
Despite these challenges, Jane Austen and early female authors laid the foundation for future female literary achievements, challenging societal norms and expanding the role of women in intellectual life. This legacy continues to shape literature and gender discourse today and I, for one, am glad to stand on the shoulder of such a giant.
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